The Third Defining Moment in J&K

When India became Independent on 15 August 1947, the vast majority of princely states had signed the Instrument of Accession with India. Three states however had yet to do so—the princely states of Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir. Junagadh, a princely state in Gujarat with a near total Hindu majority had a Muslim ruler. A plebiscite conducted in February 1948 to determine the status of the state was almost unanimous, with over 99.95 percent of the electorate voting for accession to India. In Hyderabad, the Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan ruled over a largely Hindu population. The atrocities heaped on the Hindu population forced the Indian government to use the military to liberate the state. This was achieved in a swift operation codenamed Operation Polo, which began on 13 September 1948 and concluded five days later on 18 September with the surrender of the Nizam's forces.

The situation in J&K was however more complex. The border state had two large population groups, both Hindus and Muslims with the latter having a larger majority. Before the ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh could take a view on the accession of his state, armed Pakistani raiders, led by Pakistani army officers, invaded Kashmir in October 1947, barely two months after Independence. The Maharaja lacked the capacity to defend his kingdom from these attacks. There were just three battalions available for the defence of the Kashmir division, of which one battalion was at Srinagar, one at Domel and a third at Gilgit Agency. Of the four battalions south of Pir Panjal range, one each was located at Poonch, Rawalkot, Naushera and Mirpur. Some of these were mixed battalions with both Dogra and Muslim troops. Poor communications and the vast spread of the area meant that each battalion was really fighting an independent battle and could not depend on support from any one.

The Pakistani plan to take the state of J&K by force was codenamed "Operation Gulmarg," under the command of Brig (later Major General) Akbar Khan, a serving officer of the Pakistan army. A force of 7,500 tribals mixed with Pakistan army personnel began the offensive on 22 October, which was characterised by murder, loot and rape. The Muslim companies of the Maharaja's forces deserted their posts and joined the raiders, after shamefully killing their Dogra colleagues. By 26 October, the raiders were on the outskirts of Kashmir, when the Maharaja requested India's help and signed the Instrument of Accession. Next day, the first lot of troops from the Indian Army were flown in to Srinagar and the raiders were halted on the outskirts of the city. Thereafter, they were pushed back till a ceasefire was declared on 31 December 1948. This was the first defining moment in the post-independence history of the state. At the time of the Ceasefire, Pakistan was in possession of about one-third of the state of J&K, to include the areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and Mirpur-Muzaffarabad. This line has seen minor modifications post the 1971 war with Pakistan, where it came to be known as the Line of Control. But the fact that the raiders were stopped and pushed back despite unimaginable odds is a credit to the Indian Infantry, which since then, celebrates 27 October as Infantry Day. 

The second defining moment in the history of the state came with the onset of  radicalisation of Kashmiri Muslims. The process, which started in the mid sixties, had, by the mid seventies, picked up pace, eventually culminating in the genocide of the minority Hindu population in Kashmir in January 1990. This was perhaps the saddest moment in the history of the state, where the indigenous Hindu population which had been living here for over five millennia were forced to flee their homeland and seek refuge in other parts of India. The much vaunted "Kashmiriyat" - a blend of Hindu and Muslim traditions, was brutally killed at the altar of Islamic radicalism. The Indian Army was called in to restore order in the state and while the outward manifestation of peace has been restored, the challenge of eliminating terrorism in full still remains, largely because terrorism is fuelled and funnelled from across the border by Pakistan. The Indian Army hence remains deployed in the region, carrying out counter-terrorism operations. 

We are now in the midst of the third defining moment in the state, post-independence. On 5 August 1919, the Special Status given to the state was withdrawn by an Act of Parliament, passed by both the Houses. With the revocation, the state was also bifurcated into two Union Territories (UT), The UT of J&K and the UT of Ladakh, the former with a legislature and the latter without. This has perhaps been the most revolutionary piece of legislation in post-Independence history, designed to bring peace and normalcy to the state. 

Since the revocation, the state has seen a downward spiral of violence, but it will take some more time for peace to return fully to the UT. Importantly, incidents of stone pelting, hartals and attending the funeral of slain terrorists, which was a frequent occurrence since 1990, are now a thing of the past. The linkages which the Hurriyat Conference had with Pakistan have been considerably weakened as has the ability of this organisation to stoke violence in the UT. Abrogation of  the Special Status given to the former state of J&K is however not a panacea for peace. Many challenges still lie ahead for restoration of total normalcy. But without the revocation, peace in the region would have been but a chimera. There is no magic wand to negate the effects of over four decades of radicalisation, wherein even the states administrative machinery had been corroded. But the fact that the process has begun in real earnest brings forth, for the first time, the hope of total peace in the region. That will mark the beginning of the fourth phase of the defining moments in the history of J&K. Hopefully, this will come about by 2024.

INFORMATION WARFARE IN MODERN DAY CONFLICT

Introduction

The critical role that information plays in warfare is well known and has been adequately documented over millennia. In days of yore, rulers laid great stress on intelligence gathering, surveillance and reconnaissance as part of their war fighting philosophy. Kautilya’s magnum opus, Arthashastra, written about 2300 years ago, provides a detailed account of intelligence collection, processing, consumption, and covert operations, as indispensable means for maintaining and expanding the security and power of the state. In those times, extensive use was made of spies to gather information. That process continues till date.

The means used till about the beginning of the nineteenth century to deliver orders in the battlefield was through runners who would convey instructions and information from position to position and commander to soldiers in the midst of battle. Drums, horns, flags, and riders on horseback were some of the other methods the military used to send messages over distances. This has changed in modern times with the discovery and understanding of electromagnetic waves since the early nineteenth century. Today, advancements made in communication technology have radically altered the way we communicate with each other. The information revolution has been led by the ongoing rapid evolution of cyberspace, microcomputers, and associated information technologies. Alongside the rapid advancements made in communication technology, phenomenal developments have taken place in long range precision weapon systems. The merger of these technologies, when coopted into revised military organisations, structures and doctrine, has given rise to what is popularly called the RMA or Revolution in Military Affairs. This has led to the evolution of C4I2SR systems, an acronym for integrating Command, Control, Communications, Computers (C4), Information, Intelligence (I2) Surveillance and Reconnaissance (SR) systems into a system of systems. This implies a group of functionalities and applications of a defence system to integrate weapon platforms with surveillance stations and decision making structures.

The Communication Revolution

 

We are living today in the information age. The shift from traditional industry, established by the industrial revolution, to an economy primarily based upon information technology, started sometime in the mid twentieth century. Also known as the digital age, the information age is characterised by the use of computers and smart phones, which has enabled individuals and organisations to communicate with each other and share information across a wide spectrum of requirements such as terrain mapping, weather forecasting, data transfer and a host of other applications. This has been made possible by positioning satellites in space, which communicate with earth stations to provide a host of facilities all across the globe in real time. Advancements in communication technologies also provide a host of military applications, enabling precision engagement of long distance targets and giving rise to the possibility of conducting military operations at the speed of thought. 

Information in the modern age is thus vital for all aspects of human endeavour, to include governance, business, agriculture, economy—practically every aspect of modern life. The digitisation of information based processes has led to practical applications in all forms of governance. As an example, in India, the 'Jan Dhan Yojana' scheme has led to financial inclusion for millions of households who earlier had no access to banking facilities. Launched in 2014, the scheme, now having completed eight years, has over 46 crore beneficiaries, whose deposits are in excess of Rs 1.73 lakh crore. Similarly, India's Covid vaccine programme was based on digital technology, through the digital platform, 'CO-WIN'.  This user friendly mobile app for recording vaccine data is working as a beneficiary management platform having various modules. Similarly, information based digital systems are presently being used for complex management systems and infrastructures involving the control of electric power, money flow, air traffic, oil and gas, and other information-dependent items. The security and effective operation of critical infrastructure in the energy, banking and finance, transportation, communication, and the Defense Industrial Base domain, rely on cyberspace, industrial control systems, and information technology that may be vulnerable to disruption or exploitation if adversaries attempt to damage them using Information Warfare techniques. This could potentially paralyse a nations functioning and hence the need to protect such systems becomes paramount. 

Information based systems also have tremendous military applications which are vital to a nation's war fighting potential. There would be a need to protect own networks which are required for command and control, precision target engagement over long distances, battlefield transparency, remote sensing, terrain mapping and a host of other military requirements. Protecting own information means and attacking those of the enemy are hence an essential component of modern day war-fighting. The latter operation involves both hard and soft kill options. As an example, the physical destruction of a satellite or earth stations would be part of the hard kill, whereas making systems unusable through non-kinetic means would form part of the soft kill options. Information Warfare thus deals with three major prongs: One, the denial and protection of information, two, the exploitation and ability to attack enemy information and data systems, (which also embraces electronic warfare) and three, deception by various means to include spoofing, imitation and distortion.

Besides the above, the fourth related field for information warfare involves the specific targeting of the minds of a select or indiscriminate audience, so as to influence the attitudes and behaviour patterns of large population segments into a favoured direction. This has become possible because digital technology has enabled the common citizen to receive and transmit information from multiple sources—a function which was earlier solely the preserve of the state and perhaps of a few large media houses. This democratisation of information has led to the ability to influence or shape the attitudes and perceptions of entire populations as part of a war fighting strategy. Also referred to as perception management, the aim, whether in war or peace, is to influence the perceptions, attitudes and behaviour of selected individuals or groups so as to achieve political or military objectives while preventing effective use of these activities by an enemy or adversary. Such operations could have tactical, operational or  strategic impact. 

A recent example of use of Information Warfare is the ongoing conflict in Russia, which began on 24 February 2022 and is still continuing. In the early stages of the war, the Russian military disabled or destroyed a large part of the electronic communication infrastructure of Ukraine, prompting Ukraine's President Zelenskyy to appeal to Elon Musk for help. Mr Musk immediately responded to the request by making his Starlink satellite services available to Ukraine, providing SpaceX's Starlink internet access service to the beleaguered nation. Starlink is currently providing critical communication lifeline to Ukraine's government, military and civilians despite persistent Russian bombing of traditional telecommunication infrastructures across Ukraine, serving as a vital communication line and complementing precarious traditional telecommunication infrastructures. As of September 2022, there were 23,000 Starlink terminals in Ukraine.

Strategic Imperatives

Perception management by most nations and their militaries revolve around the tactical and operational aspects with the limited aim of inducing enemy troops to surrender or to desert. The need is, however, for having a larger strategic focus within which the tactical and operational narratives must play a part. The US led information campaign aimed at undermining Communism during the Cold War is an apt example of a successfully conducted perception management campaign with a strategic focus. 

As Josef Joffe, editor of Die Zeit has written, “Unlike centuries past, when war was the great arbiter, today the most interesting types of power do not come out of the barrel of a gun”. Elaborating further, Joseph Nye states that bigger payoffs can be achieved by “getting others to want what you want”. Perception management operations can be one of the primary ways of achieving that objective. In the Indian context, an effective perception management strategy could lead to conflict resolution in a faster time frame in those areas afflicted by terrorism and insurgency. Insurgent and terrorist networks, in a sense could be likened to the demon Raktabīja, mentioned in Hindu scriptures. The demon was blessed with a boon that whenever a drop of his blood fell on the ground, a duplicate Raktabīja would be born at that spot. To finally kill the demon, Goddess Kali had to stretch her tongue all across the worlds to prevent the blood from spilling on the ground. In relation to insurgencies, this blood represents the public support that insurgents need to survive. Once separated from that support, insurgencies will wither and die. Perception management can be used effectively for that purpose.

It must however be understood that perception management is not a substitute for capability. As an example, in the absence of hard power, deterrence will not succeed, regardless of the effectiveness of the perception management campaign. In advertising terms, the product has to live up to its brand image, otherwise it will lose its credibility. This also implies that the actions of the Armed Forces while engaged in military operations must be in consonance with the perception management campaign and the strategic narrative must not be lost sight of. The strategic narrative remains focussed on end-term goal realisations while operational and tactical level narratives are more focussed towards the immediacy of the conflict situation. While the tactical and operational level narratives are important, they must not run counter to the long-term aims of the country. 

Conclusion

Information Warfare as a war-winning factor is not a new concept, having been extensively applied in battles over the past few millennia. But its modern day application is a product of advancements made in communication technology and long range precision weapon systems, along with a concept which is relatively new, which is shaping perceptions of an entire population through the social media, audio-visual networks and the print media. In the information age, the shaping and influencing of opinions of target populations can give handsome returns and can lead to conflict resolution on favourable terms. It is however not a stand alone concept and must be applied with other instruments of state power to achieve the desired results.

Published by the RSS

BOOK REVIEW: CONNECTING WITH THE MAHABHARATA History / Geography / Archaeology / Culture / Art

Authors: Neera Misra and Rajesh Lal

Book Review by Maj Gen Dhruv C. Katoch,

A phenomenon, now distinctly visible in India, bespeaks of a distinct desire amongst the populace to connect to one's roots. This reflects a push back against an agenda, fostered by foreign rulers over the last millennia, wherein the local belief systems of the Indian people were denigrated, distorted or sought to be destroyed. Indian scriptures were demeaned and portrayed as being medieval, backward, archaic and not in tune with modern times. This consistent attempt to destroy India's spiritual and cultural heritage was part of a construct to break the spirit of its people. It was a deliberate act, attempted by the sword during the period of muslim rule. The British, however, were more subtle. They overhauled the education system to create a body of Indians, who would, as enunciated by Thomas Babington Macaulay, be "Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect". The aim in both cases was to emphasise the superiority of the conquerors, to enable them to rule India in perpetuity. To do that, it was essential to create a sense of inferiority in the subjugated population through disassociating them from their roots. 

In the world view of the occupying powers, whether muslim or British, a whole race could be permanently enslaved if they could be forced or coerced to change their religion, their language and their culture. But despite the onslaught of a thousand years, the Indian civilisational ethos could not be subdued. The people fought back, even when the odds were immensely stacked against them That is why the Indic civilisation survived, despite repeated assaults on its very foundation. Today, while all other ancient civilisations have been swept away by the sands of time, the Indic civilisation stands tall and proud, unbroken, though battered a bit perhaps. But such an onslaught has left a void in the spiritual and cultural yearnings of the masses. The resurgence that we are now witnessing is a reflection of that deep-seated desire to know more about our heritage and our spiritual and cultural moorings from the indigenous lens and not as viewed and narrated by foreign invaders.

Consequent to such an indigenous upsurge, a scholarly body of literature has emerged over the years, encapsulating the depth of spiritual learnings from ancient times. This book, "Connecting with the Mahabharata" is one such body of work, immaculately researched and written with a free flowing elegance that is rarely seen in works of this nature. Towards that end, the authors, Ms Neera Misra and Air Vice Marshal Rajesh Lal, have crafted not just a book, but a veritable masterpiece. 

While the Mahabharata has always been a source of deep philosophical and spiritual learning, the valuable knowledge of our sacred Itihasa continued to be undermined, even post independence, by a range of authors who veered towards a virulent communist ideology. As they held the levers of power in the educational domain, they continued with such subjective history writing and in diluting Bharat's scriptural and spiritual heritage. In the western narrative, India's scriptural texts became mere works of poetry with a mythological construct and this fallacy was further reinforced post independence by historians who looked at Bharat from an ideological lens. The historicity of Ram and Krishna was hence suppressed, making it even more important now to correct centuries of misinterpretations and misperceptions about our sacred historical texts. And this is what this marvellous book sets out to do.

Set out in eight chapters, the opening chapter gives an overarching introduction to the Mahabharata. Chapter 2 is interesting as it brings forth the geographical context in which the Mahabharata is set. Bharatavarsha, as described in our scriptures, is the bow-shaped region extending from the Himalayas, South to the Oceans. The people who inhabited this region were indigenous and called Arya or the enlightened ones. This dispels the distortion brought about by the now discredited theory of the Aryan invasion. This chapter also gives an account of the term Yuga, as used by ancient Bhartiya scholars to describe various eras of ancient Bharata—Sat Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvarpa Yuga and Kali Yuga. Mention is made of the geography of rivers and their tributaries as expounded in the Rig Veda, which also contain the rivers in which the Mahabharata story unfolds. The maps used to support the narrative are truly mesmerising, with history unfolding through the geography of the land.

The third chapter describes the political, socio-economic and cultural landscape of the larger expanse of Bharata, from which comes the term Mahabharata. The 18 Parvas or episodic parts of the Mahabharata are described in this chapter, once again with beautiful illustrations. Chapter 4 deals with the archaeological evidence in support of the authenticity of the Mahabharata. This covers a wide swathe, from Gandhara (present day Kandahar in Afghanistan) to Magadh in the east of India and gives a fascinating glimpse of the excavations made by stalwarts of the calibre of Shri BB Lal. The dating of the Mahabharata is covered in Chapter 6, which provides another fascinating account of the probable dates when the events as covered in the Mahabharata took place. This is important as it dispels the fake narrative which refers to Indian scriptures as mythology, lacking a historical context. The penultimate chapter deal with the Mahabharata in the arts while the final chapter covers the genealogy and roots of the Mahabharata family tree.

The book, brought forth as a coffee table book, is a unique work, written in elegant prose alongside breathtaking art work to go with the script. It serves to educate the reader of India's rich spiritual and scriptural heritage in a manner that is easily comprehensible. For a work of this magnitude, with such beautiful illustrations, it is modestly priced at Rs 1199, in hard cover. To all Indians who would like to get in touch with their roots, this is a book which they will be proud to possess.